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Section 1: Types of Air Compressors
The first section of the book gives you a summary on the main types (reciprocating, rotary screw, centrifugal) of compressors. This includes tips and comparison charts to help you determine which type would be best for your application.
Introduction Consideration When Selecting a Basic Type of Air Compressor Duty Cycle/Quality of Air Pressure Space and Location/Primary Power Positive Displacement Reciprocating Oil Cooled Screw & Vane Single Screw Water Jacket - Rotary Vane Non-Lube Screw and Lube Dynamic Compressors Centrifugal Axial Flow Comparison Charts General Lubricated Non-Lubricated
Section 2: Lubricant Cooled Rotary Screw Compressors
This section is a short course on oil cooled rotary screw compressors including the details on how each component operates. Also, you will find advice about installation and energy recovery as well as how to trouble shoot the most common problems.
Basic Profile Design and Operating Parameters Blow Hole/Thermal Expansion Compression Cycle General Performance Curves Profile Types - Symmetrical - Asymmetrical High Performance Bearings Terminology Application and Installation Tips General Capacity Ratings, Duty Cycle Pressure - Controls Air Cooled Installation Water Cooled Installation Heat Recovery - Cold Weather Operation - Outdoor Intake Air General Piping Operating with Reciprocal Compressor Wiring and Power Considerations Oil Carryover Synthetic Lubricants Effect of Altitude Rotary Screw Installation Tips
Section 3: Lubricant Free Rotary Screw Compressors
This section covers the unique aspects of the rotary screw compressors that provide non lubricated compressed air.
Introduction and Background Operating Characteristics Applying the Lubricant Free Rotary Screw Comparing Lubricant Free Rotary Screw to Lubricant Cooled Rotary Screw Altitude Operating Pressure Chart
Section 4: Centrifugal Air Compressors
This is dedicated to the centrifugal style of compressor.
The design and operating data in this section provides a explanation of how a centrifugal compressor works. In addition, there is a check list for the critical maintenance issues, specific details on the proper piping installation and details on the impact of surge.
Basic Design and Operating Parameters Impellers Basic Operation Diffuser Inlet Control Inlet Guide Valves Application and Installation Tips Flow Limitations, Surge and Choke - Stonewall Effects of Cold Air, Capacity and Energy Effects of Hot Air, Capacity and Energy Basic Maintenance & Installation Considerations General Maintenance Guidelines General Piping Guidelines Inlet Piping Bypass Piping Discharge Piping Check Valves Expansion Joints Operating in Parallel with Reciprocating Compressors Condensate Drains
Section 5: Centrifugal and Lubricant Free Rotary Screw Compressors as used in Manufacturing Plants
This section discusses the relative appropriateness of using centrifugal and lubricant free rotary screw compressors for primary air supply in manufacturing plants.
Background, Replacing the Old Large Reciprocating Compressors Development of Lubricant Free Rotary Screw, Sizing and Re-Sizing Centrifugal Sizing Comparing the Basic Operating Characteristics Air End Repairs and Replacement Basic Packaging Running Lubricant Free Screw as Trim Unit with a Centrifugal
Section 6: Compressor Capacity Controls and Energy Cost and Other Energy Recovery Options
This section illustrates how compressor controls effect the power cost for operating a reciprocating, rotary screw and centrifugal compressors.
You will find tips on maximizing the efficiency of power usage by matching the compressor type to a specific application. There are articles about calculating the price of compressed air as well as providing ideas for saving money on your power costs.
An Evaluation of Compressor Capacity Controls and Their Effect on Power Cost Basic Types - Pros and Cons Power vs. Capacity Curves Various Controls Table - Operating Band vs. Actual CFM, Load Various Controls Blow Off Controls Effective Storage Volume and Effect on Cycle Energy Case Study - Excess Interconnecting Piping Back Pressure Case Study - Piping Back Pressure - Precludes Efficient Reciprocating Compressor Trim Utilization Case Study - (2) Centrifugal Compressors Forced into “Turn Down” by Piping Back Pressure Impact of Capacity Controls on Your Input Energy Typical Standard and Premium Efficiency Motor Curves at Constant and Variable Speed Variable Speed Drive on Rotary Screw Compressors Reciprocating Capacity Controls Rotary Screw Capacity Controls Centrifugal Capacity Controls Performance Curves – All Types Compressors – Various Controls Profits from a Level I Compressed Air Audit Running a Compressed Air Energy Survey Recovering Energy Costs in a Compressed Air System Comparing Energy Costs - Electric, Natural Gas, Diesel Converting Heat Recovery into Energy Cost Savings
Section 7: Determining Your Air Requirements
The information in this session will help you determine your existing and future compressed air requirements.
This is the starting point to making decisions about adding compressors, implementing leak detection programs, installing air receiver tanks and upgrading compressor control systems. The engineering formulas and practical examples will save you time and money by giving you the tools to clearly understand the capacity of your air system.
Introduction Compressibility of Air - Pump Up Formula Determining Your Air Demand Checking Existing Capacity Additional Air to Bring System Up Cost of System Leaks Sizing Receivers for Surge Tips for Pneumatic Cylinder Selection, Air Tools, Sandblasting Selection Chart Air Usage - Air Cylinder CFM vs. Pressure for Various Orifices The Compressed Air Receiver - The Endless Question The General Use and Location of Air Receivers Controlling Flow Rate Pulses - Dust Collector Storage to Offset Regulator Action Delay Higher Pressure Off Line Storage to Support Large “Event Uses” Point of Use Receiver with Booster for Higher Pressure Typical Dimensions Vertical Air Receivers Lifting the Fog Surrounding “Demand Side Control”
Section 8: The Compressed Air Distribution Systems
The focus of this section is on the compressed air distribution system.
This is where you will find ways to save money on the system for delivering the air to the points of use throughout your plant. This section explains the high cost of turbulence in air piping with 4 case studies. There are other specific examples concerning the cost of common piping mistakes. In addition, there are charts for pressure loss in various pipe sizes and tips for piping for reciprocating, rotary screw and centrifugal compressors.
Introduction - Central or Departmental Suction Pipe (Large Reciprocating) Aftercooler Air Receiver Drop and Drip Legs Pipe Slope Controlling Pressure Loss Typical Pressure Drop Chart General Rules for Compressed Air Distributor System General Tips on Piping Inlet - Rotary Recipient Discharge - Rotary Recipient Guidelines - Material The High Cost of Turbulence in Air Piping Four Case Studies Pressure Drop in Compressed Air Hose Pressure Drop Charts for Pipe ½” to 24” and Normal Fittings Pressure Loss Chart to 10,000 CFM to 400 psig
Section 9: Compressed Air Dryers
This section provides details on getting the moisture out of a compressed air system.
It provides the facts about dew point and the potential sources of moisture. You will find information on the different types of compressed air dryers including tips on how to select the most cost effective dryer for your application.
Introduction Moisture, Where it Comes from Dew Point, Pressure Dew Point, Relative Humidity, Effect of Temperature Degree of Required Dryness Type of Dryers Deliquescent Air Dryers Absorption, Chemical Process, Drying Capability, Type of “Desiccant”, Advantages, Disadvantages, Typical Installation Layout Desiccant Air Dryers Absorption, Regenerative Type, Basic Operation, Types of Desiccant, Advantages, Disadvantages, Purge Air Internal Heat Reactivated Basic Operation, Purge Requirements Heat Less or Pressure Swing Basic Operation Principles, Purge Requirements Purge Control System Definition of “How They Work”, Potential Savings, “Skip Cycle”, “Varying Purge Rate”, Capacedence Probes, Temperature Probe, PDP Measure, Purge Control Savings in Electric Power Dollars Other Types of Desiccant Dryers Blower Purge Dryers Split Stream Dryer External Heated Heat of Compression Solid or Immobilized Desiccant Single Tower Energy Cost Comparison Heat Less, Ext. Heat, Blower Purge Refrigerated Air Dryers Direct Expansion Non-Cycling, Two Stage, Basic Performance, Air Flow, Refrigerant Flow Clean Air Act of 1990 Effect on Refrigerants, Equipment, User, Future Other Types of Refrigerated Dryers Heat Sink or Thermal Mass Cycling Type Water chiller - Refrigerant Other “Cycling Dryers” Operating Power Cost for Refrigerated Dryers Cycling vs. Non-Cycling Energy Cost Comparison - Pressure Drop Typical Refrigerated Dryer System Air Cooled Aftercooler Location CTD (Rotary Screw) Dew Point and Energy in Refrigeration Dryer Membrane Compressed Air Dryer How They Work - Design Capabilities General Data Basic Dryer Piping Schematic Atmospheric Vs. Pressure Dew Point, Effect on Aftercooler Sample Data Required for Application Deliquescent Refrigeration Desiccant General Selection Guidelines General Piping Guidelines Dew Point Conversion Charts, Refrigerated, Desiccant Dryer Combination Conversion Table - Water Content of Air Other Means of Moisture Contamination
Section 10: Aftercoolers, Separators and Compressed Air Line Filters
This section covers the products that are used to filter contaminants from compressed air.
The information explains how the pressure loss associated with filters will increase the energy cost to produce compressed air. There are tips on how to pick the best filter for your requirement without building in extra annual expense in wasted energy.
Aftercooler/Separator Overview Separator Performance Mechanics of Filtration Particulate Filters Coalescing Filters Absorption Filters Comparing Filter Performance Instrument Air Breathing Air Medical Air Filters
Section 11: Automatic Condensate Traps
Ways to save money with condensation drains.
This section makes it clear how much energy is being wasted by using many of the most common types of drains. The knowledge of where money is being wasted can be used to demonstrate the potential for savings in your plant.
Introduction - Energy Cost of Leaks Float Operated Traps Electronic Auto Drains Valves - Internal Pilot Floating Seal Motorized Ball Valve Energy Cost - Lost Air with Dual Cycle Electronic Auto Drains Level Actuated Electronic Chart - Condensate Generated per CFM (H.P.)
Section 12: Compressed Air Condensate Oil Water Separation
The facts about oily water condensate.
This section includes an overview of the regulations and provides an explanation of the various devices used to treat the oily water mixture. There are also tips on where the savings can be found in the treatment of the oily water condensate.
Introduction - Overview Basic Regulations, Responsibility Gravity Separators, Carbon After Filters Gravity Pre-separation with Coalescing Filters and Carbon After Filters Membrane Separation Ultra Filtration Micro Filtration Distillation Types of Compressor Lubricants Related to Separation Energy Cost Comparison of Various Distillation Methods - Steam, Natural Gas, Electricity, Heat of Compression
Section 13: Air Compressors for Altitude Operation
High altitudes have an effect on a compressed air system.
This section gives you the specific impact on the different types of air compressors, air tools and air motors when operating in higher altitudes. You will find the conversion factors for determining the performance levels you can expect.
Introduction - Terminology Effect on Altitude Reciprocating Rotary Oil Cooled Other Effects of Altitude Air Tools, Air Motors Boiling Temperature Engine Horsepower Electric Motors Steps to Set Up Altitude Air System
Section 14: Synthetic Compressor Lubricants
Saving money with synthetic lubricants.
This section explains which compressor type can benefit from the different synthetic oils on the market. In addition, you will find advice on how to get the most from a regular oil analysis program.
Types of Compressors and Their Use of Synthetic Lubricant Oil Analysis as a Maintenance
This section explains the fundamentals of high pressure air which is usually considered anything over 250 psig. You will find information regarding the use of reciprocating compressors as well as the potential for using a booster compressor. Also, there are case histories that give some insight on the safety concerns when using high pressure compressors.
Definition of High Pressure Reciprocating Compressors Determining Temperatures and Ratios Tables Adiabatic Temperature vs. Ratio of Compression. Sample Single Stage, Double Acting Booster Use of a Booster Sizing of Booster - Inlet Pressure, Discharge Pressure, Ratio, Capacity, Horsepower, Power Saving Safety in High Performance Air API Standard 618 Third Edition
Section 16: Optimizing the Compressed Air System
Optimizing your compressed air system.
This section deals specifically with the high cost of compressed air. It provides insight on the opportunities to save energy by managing the compressors, air treatment equipment, piping systems and the demand side. You should understand this information before considering an air audit.
Definition - Optimum Compressed Air System Cost of Compressed Air Effective Management of Compressed Air Supply Side Management Types of Compressors, Controls, Motor Efficiency, Pressure Drop in Filters, Dryers, etc. Waste Management Leak Control, Auto Drains Demand Side Management Pressure Spikes, Flow Control, Lowest Effective Pressure
It is helpful to know the air flow in CFM to trouble shoot a problem or to determine if more compressors are needed in a plant. However, there are many instances each year when decisions are made based on incorrect or misinterpreted data taken from flow meters. This section provides details on the operation of the main types of flow meters.
Field Measuring Compressed Air Flow Flow Reading Charts Differentials What is the V Cone? Inline Flow Meters? Vortex Shedding Thermal Mass Flow Commercial Flow Sensor
Section 18: Running A Leak Survey
A leak management program can add energy savings to the bottom line. This section covers the basics of a leak survey and how to determine the cost of compressed air leaks. It also includes a discussion on ultrasonic leak detection.
Source of Waste Common Problems Finding Leaks Bleed Down Test Ultrasonic Detection
Section 19: Terminology & Technical Support
The final section gives you a summary of terms and more than 30 charts on issues relating to compressed air. This information is a resource that can be referred to for years to come.
Terminology, Definitions, Rules of Thumb, Helpful Formulas Conversion Factors Conversion Chart - Inches/Decimal/Metric Terminology, General Terms Useful Formulas What is CFM, ICFM, ACFM, SCFM Rules of “Thumb” Water Cooled Aftercooler Compressor Discharge Temperature Horsepower to Pressure - Horsepower to Power Cost Electrical - Horsepower to Amperage Heat Rejection Ventilation Required Horsepower per CFM per Pressure Reading Piston Speed Apply 60 Hz Motor to 50 Hz Applications Time, Capacity to Draw Vacuum Install Compressor - Intake to Coolest Location, Effect on Efficiency of Dirty Intake Filter Cylinder Clearance and Compression Ratios Effect on Volumetric Efficiency - Reciprocating Compressors Oil Carryover Centigrade to Fahrenheit Conversion Table Air Cylinder Chart Single Phase and 3 Phase Electric Motor - HP to Volts to Amps Miscellaneous Electrical Formulas (Shaft BHP to Input Kw) Vertical Air Receiver Storage Volume of Piping Electrical Energy Cost per CFM, per PSIG Weight of Dry Air Barometric Pressure vs. Altitude Water Content of Air Dew Point at Pressure Calculating Velocity of Compressed Air in Pipe Discharge Air Through Orifice Table Air Flow Table Flow of Air Through Orifices Under Vacuum Pressure and Vacuum Equivalents Conversion Factors Decimal and Metric Equivalents - fractions of an inch ©2000 Copyright and All Rights Reserved.
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